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.. _python_35:
Python 3.5
==========
Below is a list of finalised/accepted PEPs for Python 3.5 grouped into their impact to MicroPython.
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| **Extensions to the syntax:** | **Status** |
+--------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| `PEP 448 <https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0448/>`_ | additional unpacking generalizations | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| `PEP 465 <https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0465/>`_ | a new matrix multiplication operator | Completed |
+--------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| `PEP 492 <https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0492/>`_ | coroutines with async and await syntax | Completed |
+--------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| **Extensions and changes to runtime:** |
+--------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| `PEP 461 <https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0461/>`_ | % formatting for binary strings | Completed |
+--------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| `PEP 475 <https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0475/>`_ | retrying system calls that fail with EINTR | Completed |
+--------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| `PEP 479 <https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0479/>`_ | change StopIteration handling inside generators | Completed |
+--------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| **Standard library changes:** |
+--------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| `PEP 471 <https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0471/>`_ | os.scandir() | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| `PEP 485 <https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0485/>`_ | math.isclose(), a function for testing | Completed |
| | approximate equality | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| **Miscellaneous changes:** |
+--------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| `PEP 441 <https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0441/>`_ | improved Python zip application support | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| `PEP 486 <https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0486/>`_ | make the Python Laucher aware of virtual | |
| | environments | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| `PEP 484 <https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0484/>`_ | type hints (advisory only) | In Progress |
+--------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| `PEP 488 <https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0488/>`_ | elimination of PYO files | Not relevant |
+--------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| `PEP 489 <https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0489/>`_ | redesigning extension module loading | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+-------------------------------------------------+---------------+
Other Language Changes:
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| Added the *namereplace* error handlers. The *backslashreplace* error handlers now work with decoding and | |
| translating. | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| Property docstrings are now writable. This is especially useful for collections.namedtuple() docstrings | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| Circular imports involving relative imports are now supported. | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
New Modules:
* `typing <https://docs.python.org/3/whatsnew/3.5.html#typing>`_
* `zipzap <https://docs.python.org/3/whatsnew/3.5.html#zipapp>`_
Changes to built-in modules:
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| `collections <https://docs.python.org/3/whatsnew/3.5.html#collections>`_ |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| The *OrderedDict* class is now implemented in C, which makes it 4 to 100 times faster. | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| *OrderedDict.items()* , *OrderedDict.keys()* , *OrderedDict.values()* views now support reversed() | |
| iteration. | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| The deque class now defines *index()*, *insert()*, and *copy()*, and supports the + and * operators. | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| Docstrings produced by namedtuple() can now be updated. | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| The UserString class now implements the *__getnewargs__()*, *__rmod__()*, *casefold()*, *format_map()*, | |
| *isprintable()*, and *maketrans()* methods to match the corresponding methods of str. | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| `heapq <https://docs.python.org/3/whatsnew/3.5.html#heapq>`_ |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| Element comparison in *merge()* can now be customized by passing a key function in a new optional key | |
| keyword argument, and a new optional *reverse* keyword argument can be used to reverse element comparison | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| `io <https://docs.python.org/3/whatsnew/3.5.html#io>`_ |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| A new *BufferedIOBase.readinto1()* method, that uses at most one call to the underlying raw stream's | |
| *RawIOBase.read()* or *RawIOBase.readinto()* methods | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| `json <https://docs.python.org/3/whatsnew/3.5.html#json>`_ | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| JSON decoder now raises JSONDecodeError instead of ValueError to provide better context information about | |
| the error. | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| `math <https://docs.python.org/3/whatsnew/3.5.html#math>`_ |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| Two new constants have been added to the math module: *inf* and *nan*. | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| A new function *isclose()* provides a way to test for approximate equality. | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| A new *gcd()* function has been added. The *fractions.gcd()* function is now deprecated. | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| `os <https://docs.python.org/3/whatsnew/3.5.html#os>`_ |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| The new *scandir()* function returning an iterator of DirEntry objects has been added. | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| The *urandom()* function now uses the *getrandom()* syscall on Linux 3.17 or newer, and *getentropy()* on | |
| OpenBSD 5.6 and newer, removing the need to use /dev/urandom and avoiding failures due to potential file | |
| descriptor exhaustion. | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| New *get_blocking()* and *set_blocking()* functions allow getting and setting a file descriptor's blocking| |
| mode (O_NONBLOCK.) | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| There is a new *os.path.commonpath()* function returning the longest common sub-path of each passed | |
| pathname | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| `re <https://docs.python.org/3/whatsnew/3.5.html#re>`_ | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| References and conditional references to groups with fixed length are now allowed in lookbehind assertions| |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| The number of capturing groups in regular expressions is no longer limited to 100. | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| The *sub()* and *subn()* functions now replace unmatched groups with empty strings instead of raising an | |
| exception. | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| The *re.error* exceptions have new attributes, msg, pattern, pos, lineno, and colno, that provide better | |
| context information about the error | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| `socket <https://docs.python.org/3/whatsnew/3.5.html#socket>`_ |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| Functions with timeouts now use a monotonic clock, instead of a system clock. | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| A new *socket.sendfile()* method allows sending a file over a socket by using the high-performance | |
| *os.sendfile()* function on UNIX, resulting in uploads being from 2 to 3 times faster than when using | |
| plain *socket.send()* | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| The *socket.sendall()* method no longer resets the socket timeout every time bytes are received or sent. | |
| The socket timeout is now the maximum total duration to send all data. | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| The backlog argument of the *socket.listen()* method is now optional. By default it is set to SOMAXCONN or| |
| to 128, whichever is less. | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| `ssl <https://docs.python.org/3/whatsnew/3.5.html#ssl>`_ |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| Memory BIO Support | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation Support | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| There is a new *SSLSocket.version()* method to query the actual protocol version in use. | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| The SSLSocket class now implements a *SSLSocket.sendfile()* method. | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| The *SSLSocket.send()* method now raises either the *ssl.SSLWantReadError* or *ssl.SSLWantWriteError* | |
| exception on a non-blocking socket if the operation would block. Previously, it would return 0. | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| The *cert_time_to_seconds()* function now interprets the input time as UTC and not as local time, per RFC | |
| 5280. Additionally, the return value is always an int. | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| New *SSLObject.shared_ciphers()* and *SSLSocket.shared_ciphers()* methods return the list of ciphers sent | |
| by the client during the handshake. | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| The *SSLSocket.do_handshake()*, *SSLSocket.read()*, *SSLSocket.shutdown()*, and *SSLSocket.write()* | |
| methods of the SSLSocket class no longer reset the socket timeout every time bytes are received or sent. | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| The *match_hostname()* function now supports matching of IP addresses. | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| `sys <https://docs.python.org/3/whatsnew/3.5.html#sys>`_ |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| A new *set_coroutine_wrapper()* function allows setting a global hook that will be called whenever a | |
| coroutine object is created by an async def function. A corresponding *get_coroutine_wrapper()* can be | |
| used to obtain a currently set wrapper. | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| A new *is_finalizing()* function can be used to check if the Python interpreter is shutting down. | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| `time <https://docs.python.org/3/whatsnew/3.5.html#time>`_ |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| The *monotonic()* function is now always available | |
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+

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.. _python_36:
Python 3.6
==========
Python 3.6 beta 1 was released on 12 Sep 2016, and a summary of the new features can be found here:
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------+
| **New Syntax Features:** | **Status** |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+--------------+
| `PEP 498 <https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0498/>`_ | Literal String Formatting | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+--------------+
| `PEP 515 <https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0515/>`_ | Underscores in Numeric Literals | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+--------------+
| `PEP 525 <https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0525/>`_ | Asynchronous Generators | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+--------------+
| `PEP 526 <https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0526/>`_ | Syntax for Variable Annotations (provisional) | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+--------------+
| `PEP 530 <https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0530/>`_ | Asynchronous Comprehensions | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+--------------+
| **New Built-in Features:** |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+--------------+
| `PEP 468 <https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0468/>`_ | Preserving the order of *kwargs* in a function | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+--------------+
| `PEP 487 <https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0487/>`_ | Simpler customization of class creation | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+--------------+
| `PEP 520 <https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0520/>`_ | Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+--------------+
| **Standard Library Changes:** |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+--------------+
| `PEP 495 <https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0495/>`_ | Local Time Disambiguation | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+--------------+
| `PEP 506 <https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0506/>`_ | Adding A Secrets Module To The Standard Library | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+--------------+
| `PEP 519 <https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0519/>`_ | Adding a file system path protocol | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+--------------+
| **CPython internals:** |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+--------------+
| `PEP 509 <https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0509/>`_ | Add a private version to dict | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+--------------+
| `PEP 523 <https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0523/>`_ | Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+--------------+
| **Linux/Window Changes** |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+--------------+
| `PEP 524 <https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0524/>`_ | Make os.urandom() blocking on Linux | |
| | (during system startup) | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+--------------+
| `PEP 528 <https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0528/>`_ | Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8 | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+--------------+
| `PEP 529 <https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0529/>`_ | Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8 | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+--------------+
Other Language Changes:
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| A *global* or *nonlocal* statement must now textually appear before the first use of the affected name in | |
| the same scope. Previously this was a SyntaxWarning. | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| It is now possible to set a special method to None to indicate that the corresponding operation is not | |
| available. For example, if a class sets *__iter__()* to *None* , the class is not iterable. | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| Long sequences of repeated traceback lines are now abbreviated as *[Previous line repeated {count} more | |
| times]* | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| Import now raises the new exception *ModuleNotFoundError* when it cannot find a module. Code that currently | |
| checks for ImportError (in try-except) will still work. | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| Class methods relying on zero-argument *super()* will now work correctly when called from metaclass methods | |
| during class creation. | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
Changes to built-in modules:
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| `array <https://docs.python.org/3.6/whatsnew/3.6.html#array>`_ | |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| Exhausted iterators of *array.array* will now stay exhausted even if the iterated array is extended. | |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| `binascii <https://docs.python.org/3.6/whatsnew/3.6.html#binascii>`_ | |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| The b2a_base64() function now accepts an optional newline keyword argument to control whether the newline | |
| character is appended to the return value | |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| `cmath <https://docs.python.org/3.6/whatsnew/3.6.html#cmath>`_ | |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| The new cmath.tau (τ) constant has been added | |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| New constants: *cmath.inf* and *cmath.nan* to match *math.inf* and *math.nan* , and also *cmath.infj* and | |
| *cmath.nanj* to match the format used by complex repr | |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| `collections <https://docs.python.org/3.6/whatsnew/3.6.html#collections>`_ |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| The new Collection abstract base class has been added to represent sized iterable container classes | |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| The new *Reversible* abstract base class represents iterable classes that also provide the *__reversed__()* | |
| method. | |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| The new *AsyncGenerator* abstract base class represents asynchronous generators. | |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| The *namedtuple()* function now accepts an optional keyword argument module, which, when specified, is used | |
| for the *__module__* attribute of the returned named tuple class. | |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| The verbose and rename arguments for *namedtuple()* are now keyword-only. | |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| Recursive *collections.deque* instances can now be pickled. | |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| `hashlib <https://docs.python.org/3.6/whatsnew/3.6.html#hashlib>`_ |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| BLAKE2 hash functions were added to the module. *blake2b()* and *blake2s()* are always available and support | |
| the full feature set of BLAKE2. | |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| The SHA-3 hash functions *sha3_224()*, *sha3_256()*, *sha3_384()*, *sha3_512()*, and *SHAKE* hash functions | |
| *shake_128()* and *shake_256()* were added. | |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| The password-based key derivation function *scrypt()* is now available with OpenSSL 1.1.0 and newer. | |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| `json <https://docs.python.org/3.6/whatsnew/3.6.html#json>`_ |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| *json.load()* and *json.loads()* now support binary input. Encoded JSON should be represented using either | |
| UTF-8, UTF-16, or UTF-32. | |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| `math <https://docs.python.org/3.6/whatsnew/3.6.html#math>`_ |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| The new math.tau (τ) constant has been added | |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| `os <https://docs.python.org/3.6/whatsnew/3.6.html#os>`_ |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| A new *close()* method allows explicitly closing a *scandir()* iterator. The *scandir()* iterator now | |
| supports the context manager protocol. | |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| On Linux, *os.urandom()* now blocks until the system urandom entropy pool is initialized to increase the | |
| security. | |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| The Linux *getrandom()* syscall (get random bytes) is now exposed as the new *os.getrandom()* function. | |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| `re <https://docs.python.org/3.6/whatsnew/3.6.html#re>`_ |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| Added support of modifier spans in regular expressions. Examples: *'(?i:p)ython'* matches 'python' and | |
| 'Python', but not 'PYTHON'; *'(?i)g(?-i:v)r'* matches *'GvR'* and *'gvr'*, but not *'GVR'* . | |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| Match object groups can be accessed by *__getitem__*, which is equivalent to *group()*. So *mo['name']* is | |
| now equivalent to *mo.group('name')*. | |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| Match objects now support index-like objects as group indices. | |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| `socket <https://docs.python.org/3.6/whatsnew/3.6.html#socket>`_ |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| The *ioctl()* function now supports the *SIO_LOOPBACK_FAST_PATH* control code. | |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| The *getsockopt()* constants *SO_DOMAIN* , *SO_PROTOCOL*, *SO_PEERSEC* , and *SO_PASSSEC* are now supported. | |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| The *setsockopt()* now supports the *setsockopt(level, optname, None, optlen: int)* form. | |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| The socket module now supports the address family *AF_ALG* to interface with Linux Kernel crypto API. | |
| *ALG_*, *SOL_ALG* and *sendmsg_afalg()* were added. | |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| New Linux constants *TCP_USER_TIMEOUT* and *TCP_CONGESTION* were added. | |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| `ssl <https://docs.python.org/3.6/whatsnew/3.6.html#ssl>`_ |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| ssl supports OpenSSL 1.1.0. The minimum recommend version is 1.0.2. | |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| 3DES has been removed from the default cipher suites and ChaCha20 Poly1305 cipher suites have been added. | |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| *SSLContext* has better default configuration for options and ciphers. | |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| SSL session can be copied from one client-side connection to another with the new *SSLSession* class. TLS | |
| session resumption can speed up the initial handshake, reduce latency and improve performance. | |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| The new *get_ciphers()* method can be used to get a list of enabled ciphers in order of cipher priority. | |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| All constants and flags have been converted to *IntEnum* and *IntFlags*. | |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| Server and client-side specific TLS protocols for *SSLContext* were added. | |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| Added *SSLContext.post_handshake_auth* to enable and *ssl.SSLSocket.verify_client_post_handshake()* to | |
| initiate TLS 1.3 post-handshake authentication. | |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| `struct <https://docs.python.org/3.6/whatsnew/3.6.html#struct>`_ | |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| now supports IEEE 754 half-precision floats via the 'e' format specifier. | |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| `sys <https://docs.python.org/3.6/whatsnew/3.6.html#sys>`_ | |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| The new *getfilesystemencodeerrors()* function returns the name of the error mode used to convert between | |
| Unicode filenames and bytes filenames. | |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| `zlib <https://docs.python.org/3.6/whatsnew/3.6.html#zlib>`_ | |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| The *compress()* and *decompress()* functions now accept keyword arguments | |
+--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+

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.. _python_37:
Python 3.7
==========
New Features:
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| **Features:** | **Status** |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| `PEP 538 <https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0538/>`_ | Coercing the legacy C locale to a UTF-8 based | |
| | locale | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| `PEP 539 <https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0539/>`_ | A New C-API for Thread-Local Storage in CPython | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| `PEP 540 <https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0540/>`_ | UTF-8 mode | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| `PEP 552 <https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0552/>`_ | Deterministic pyc | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| `PEP 553 <https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0553/>`_ | Built-in breakpoint() | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| `PEP 557 <https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0557/>`_ | Data Classes | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| `PEP 560 <https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0560/>`_ | Core support for typing module and generic types | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| `PEP 562 <https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0562/>`_ | Module __getattr__ and __dir__ | Partially done |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| `PEP 563 <https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0563/>`_ | Postponed Evaluation of Annotations | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| `PEP 564 <https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0564/>`_ | Time functions with nanosecond resolution | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| `PEP 565 <https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0565/>`_ | Show DeprecationWarning in __main__ | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| `PEP 567 <https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0567/>`_ | Context Variables | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------------------------------+----------------+
Other Language Changes:
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| async and await are now reserved keywords | Completed |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| dict objects must preserve insertion-order | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| More than 255 arguments can now be passed to a function; a function can now have more than 255 parameters| |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| bytes.fromhex() and bytearray.fromhex() now ignore all ASCII whitespace, not only spaces | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| str, bytes, and bytearray gained support for the new isascii() method, which can be used to test if a | |
| string or bytes contain only the ASCII characters | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| ImportError now displays module name and module __file__ path whenfrom ... import ... fails | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| Circular imports involving absolute imports with binding a submodule to a name are now supported | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| object.__format__(x, '') is now equivalent to str(x) rather than format(str(self), '') | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| In order to better support dynamic creation of stack traces, types.TracebackType can now be instantiated | |
| from Python code, and the tb_next attribute on tracebacks is now writable | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| When using the -m switch, sys.path[0] is now eagerly expanded to the full starting directory path, rather| |
| than being left as the empty directory (which allows imports from the current working directory at the | |
| time when an import occurs) | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| The new -X importtime option or the PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME environment variable can be used to show the | |
| timing of each module import | |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
Changes to built-in modules:
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| `asyncio <https://docs.python.org/3/whatsnew/3.7.html#asyncio>`_ | |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| asyncio (many, may need a separate ticket) | |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| `gc <https://docs.python.org/3/whatsnew/3.7.html#gc>`_ | |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| New features include *gc.freeze()*, *gc.unfreeze()*, *gc-get_freeze_count* | |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| `math <https://docs.python.org/3/whatsnew/3.7.html#math>`_ | |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| math.remainder() added to implement IEEE 754-style remainder | |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| `re <https://docs.python.org/3/whatsnew/3.7.html#re>`_ | |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| A number of tidy up features including better support for splitting on empty strings and copy support for | |
| compiled expressions and match objects | |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| `sys <https://docs.python.org/3/whatsnew/3.7.html#sys>`_ | |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| sys.breakpointhook() added. sys.get(/set)_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth() added | |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| `time <https://docs.python.org/3/whatsnew/3.7.html#time>`_ | |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+
| Mostly updates to support nanosecond resolution in PEP564, see above | |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+----------------+

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.. _python_38:
Python 3.8
==========
Python 3.8.0 (final) was released on the 14 October 2019. The Features for 3.8
are defined in `PEP 569 <https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0569/#id9>`_ and
a detailed description of the changes can be found in What's New in `Python
3.8. <https://docs.python.org/3/whatsnew/3.8.html>`_
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| **Features:** | Status |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| `PEP 570 <https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0570/>`_ | Positional-only arguments | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| `PEP 572 <https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0572/>`_ | Assignment Expressions | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| `PEP 574 <https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0574/>`_ | Pickle protocol 5 with out-of-band data | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| `PEP 578 <https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0578/>`_ | Runtime audit hooks | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| `PEP 587 <https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0587/>`_ | Python Initialization Configuration | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| `PEP 590 <https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0590/>`_ | Vectorcall: a fast calling protocol for CPython | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| **Miscellaneous** |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| f-strings support = for self-documenting expressions and debugging | Completed |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
Other Language Changes:
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------+
| A *continue* statement was illegal in the *finally* clause due to a problem with the implementation. In | Completed |
| Python 3.8 this restriction was lifted | |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------+
| The *bool*, *int* , and *fractions.Fraction* types now have an *as_integer_ratio()* method like that found | |
| in *float* and *decimal.Decimal* | |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------+
| Constructors of *int*, *float* and *complex* will now use the *__index__()* special method, if available | |
| and the corresponding method *__int__()*, *__float__()* or *__complex__()* is not available | |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------+
| Added support of *\N{name}* escapes in regular expressions | |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------+
| Dict and dictviews are now iterable in reversed insertion order using *reversed()* | |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------+
| The syntax allowed for keyword names in function calls was further restricted. In particular, | |
| f((keyword)=arg) is no longer allowed | |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------+
| Generalized iterable unpacking in yield and return statements no longer requires enclosing parentheses | |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------+
| When a comma is missed in code such as [(10, 20) (30, 40)], the compiler displays a SyntaxWarning with a | |
| helpful suggestion | |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------+
| Arithmetic operations between subclasses of *datetime.date* or *datetime.datetime* and *datetime.timedelta*| |
| objects now return an instance of the subclass, rather than the base class | |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------+
| When the Python interpreter is interrupted by *Ctrl-C (SIGINT)* and the resulting *KeyboardInterrupt* | |
| exception is not caught, the Python process now exits via a SIGINT signal or with the correct exit code | |
| such that the calling process can detect that it died due to a *Ctrl-C* | |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------+
| Some advanced styles of programming require updating the *types.CodeType* object for an existing function | |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------+
| For integers, the three-argument form of the pow() function now permits the exponent to be negative in the | |
| case where the base is relatively prime to the modulus | |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------+
| Dict comprehensions have been synced-up with dict literals so that the key is computed first and the value | |
| second | |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------+
| The *object.__reduce__()* method can now return a tuple from two to six elements long | |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------+
Changes to built-in modules:
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------+
| `asyncio` |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------+
| *asyncio.run()* has graduated from the provisional to stable API | Completed |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------+
| Running *python -m asyncio* launches a natively async REPL | |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------+
| The exception *asyncio.CancelledError* now inherits from *BaseException* rather than *Exception* and no | Completed |
| longer inherits from *concurrent.futures.CancelledError* | |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------+
| Added *asyncio.Task.get_coro()* for getting the wrapped coroutine within an *asyncio.Task* | |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------+
| Asyncio tasks can now be named, either by passing the name keyword argument to *asyncio.create_task()* or | |
| the *create_task()* event loop method, or by calling the *set_name()* method on the task object | |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------+
| Added support for Happy Eyeballs to *asyncio.loop.create_connection()*. To specify the behavior, two new | |
| parameters have been added: *happy_eyeballs_delay* and interleave. | |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------+
| `gc` |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------+
| *get_objects()* can now receive an optional generation parameter indicating a generation to get objects | |
| from. (Note, though, that while *gc* is a built-in, *get_objects()* is not implemented for MicroPython) | |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------+
| `math` |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------+
| Added new function *math.dist()* for computing Euclidean distance between two points | |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------+
| Expanded the *math.hypot()* function to handle multiple dimensions | |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------+
| Added new function, *math.prod()*, as analogous function to *sum()* that returns the product of a "start" | |
| value (default: 1) times an iterable of numbers | |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------+
| Added two new combinatoric functions *math.perm()* and *math.comb()* | |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------+
| Added a new function *math.isqrt()* for computing accurate integer square roots without conversion to | |
| floating point | |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------+
| The function *math.factorial()* no longer accepts arguments that are not int-like | Completed |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------+
| `sys` |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------+
| Add new *sys.unraisablehook()* function which can be overridden to control how "unraisable exceptions" | |
| are handled | |
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+-------------+

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.. _python_39:
Python 3.9
==========
Python 3.9.0 (final) was released on the 5th October 2020. The Features for 3.9 are
defined in `PEP 596 <https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0596/#features-for-3-9>`_
and a detailed description of the changes can be found in
`What's New in Python 3.9 <https://docs.python.org/3/whatsnew/3.9.html>`_
+--------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------+--------------+
| **Features:** | | **Status** |
+--------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------+--------------+
| `PEP 573 <https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0573/>`_ | fast access to module state from methods of C | |
| | extension types | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------+--------------+
| `PEP 584 <https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0584/>`_ | union operators added to dict | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------+--------------+
| `PEP 585 <https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0584/>`_ | type hinting generics in standard collections | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------+--------------+
| `PEP 593 <https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0593/>`_ | flexible function and variable annotations | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------+--------------+
| `PEP 602 <https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0602/>`_ | CPython adopts an annual release cycle. Instead of | |
| | annual, aiming for two month release cycle | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------+--------------+
| `PEP 614 <https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0614/>`_ | relaxed grammar restrictions on decorators | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------+--------------+
| `PEP 615 <https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0615/>`_ | the IANA Time Zone Database is now present in the | |
| | standard library in the zoneinfo module | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------+--------------+
| `PEP 616 <https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0616/>`_ | string methods to remove prefixes and suffixes | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------+--------------+
| `PEP 617 <https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0617/>`_ | CPython now uses a new parser based on PEG | |
+--------------------------------------------------------+----------------------------------------------------+--------------+
Other Language Changes:
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| *__import__()* now raises *ImportError* instead of *ValueError* | Completed |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| Python now gets the absolute path of the script filename specified on the command line (ex: *python3* | |
| *script.py*): the *__file__* attribute of the *__main__* module became an absolute path, rather than a | |
| relative path | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| By default, for best performance, the errors argument is only checked at the first encoding/decoding error | |
| and the encoding argument is sometimes ignored for empty strings | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| *"".replace("", s, n)* now returns *s* instead of an empty string for all non-zero n. It is now consistent | |
| with *"".replace("", s)* | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| Any valid expression can now be used as a decorator. Previously, the grammar was much more restrictive | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| Parallel running of *aclose()* / *asend()* / *athrow()* is now prohibited, and *ag_running* now reflects | |
| the actual running status of the async generator | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| Unexpected errors in calling the *__iter__* method are no longer masked by TypeError in the in operator and | |
| functions contains(), indexOf() and countOf() of the operator module | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| Unparenthesized lambda expressions can no longer be the expression part in an if clause in comprehensions | |
| and generator expressions | |
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
Changes to built-in modules:
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| `asyncio` |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| Due to significant security concerns, the reuse_address parameter of *asyncio.loop.create_datagram_endpoint()*| |
| is no longer supported | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| Added a new coroutine *shutdown_default_executor()* that schedules a shutdown for the default executor that | |
| waits on the *ThreadPoolExecutor* to finish closing. Also, *asyncio.run()* has been updated to use the new | |
| coroutine. | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| Added *asyncio.PidfdChildWatcher*, a Linux-specific child watcher implementation that polls process file | |
| descriptors | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| added a new *coroutine asyncio.to_thread()* | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| When cancelling the task due to a timeout, *asyncio.wait_for()* will now wait until the cancellation is | |
| complete also in the case when timeout is <= 0, like it does with positive timeouts | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| *asyncio* now raises *TyperError* when calling incompatible methods with an *ssl.SSLSocket* socket | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| `gc` |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| Garbage collection does not block on resurrected objects | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| Added a new function *gc.is_finalized()* to check if an object has been finalized by the garbage collector | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| `math` |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| Expanded the *math.gcd()* function to handle multiple arguments. Formerly, it only supported two arguments | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| Added *math.lcm()*: return the least common multiple of specified arguments | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| Added *math.nextafter()*: return the next floating-point value after x towards y | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| Added *math.ulp()*: return the value of the least significant bit of a float | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| `os` |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| Exposed the Linux-specific *os.pidfd_open()* and *os.P_PIDFD* | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| The *os.unsetenv()* function is now also available on Windows | Completed |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| The *os.putenv()* and *os.unsetenv()* functions are now always available | Completed |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| Added *os.waitstatus_to_exitcode()* function: convert a wait status to an exit code | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| `random` |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| Added a new *random.Random.randbytes* method: generate random bytes | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| `sys` |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| Added a new *sys.platlibdir* attribute: name of the platform-specific library directory | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+
| Previously, *sys.stderr* was block-buffered when non-interactive. Now stderr defaults to always being | |
| line-buffered | |
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+

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:mod:`random` -- generate random numbers
========================================
.. module:: random
:synopsis: random numbers
This module implements a pseudo-random number generator (PRNG).
|see_cpython_module| :mod:`python:random` .
.. note::
The following notation is used for intervals:
- () are open interval brackets and do not include their endpoints.
For example, (0, 1) means greater than 0 and less than 1.
In set notation: (0, 1) = {x | 0 < x < 1}.
- [] are closed interval brackets which include all their limit points.
For example, [0, 1] means greater than or equal to 0 and less than
or equal to 1.
In set notation: [0, 1] = {x | 0 <= x <= 1}.
.. note::
The :func:`randrange`, :func:`randint` and :func:`choice` functions are only
available if the ``MICROPY_PY_URANDOM_EXTRA_FUNCS`` configuration option is
enabled.
Functions for integers
----------------------
.. function:: getrandbits(n)
Return an integer with *n* random bits (0 <= n <= 32).
.. function:: randint(a, b)
Return a random integer in the range [*a*, *b*].
.. function:: randrange(stop)
randrange(start, stop)
randrange(start, stop[, step])
The first form returns a random integer from the range [0, *stop*).
The second form returns a random integer from the range [*start*, *stop*).
The third form returns a random integer from the range [*start*, *stop*) in
steps of *step*. For instance, calling ``randrange(1, 10, 2)`` will
return odd numbers between 1 and 9 inclusive.
Functions for floats
--------------------
.. function:: random()
Return a random floating point number in the range [0.0, 1.0).
.. function:: uniform(a, b)
Return a random floating point number N such that *a* <= N <= *b* for *a* <= *b*,
and *b* <= N <= *a* for *b* < *a*.
Other Functions
---------------
.. function:: seed(n=None, /)
Initialise the random number generator module with the seed *n* which should
be an integer. When no argument (or ``None``) is passed in it will (if
supported by the port) initialise the PRNG with a true random number
(usually a hardware generated random number).
The ``None`` case only works if ``MICROPY_PY_URANDOM_SEED_INIT_FUNC`` is
enabled by the port, otherwise it raises ``ValueError``.
.. function:: choice(sequence)
Chooses and returns one item at random from *sequence* (tuple, list or
any object that supports the subscript operation).

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.. currentmodule:: stm
:mod:`stm` --- functionality specific to STM32 MCUs
===================================================
.. module:: stm
:synopsis: functionality specific to STM32 MCUs
This module provides functionality specific to STM32 microcontrollers, including
direct access to peripheral registers.
Memory access
-------------
The module exposes three objects used for raw memory access.
.. data:: mem8
Read/write 8 bits of memory.
.. data:: mem16
Read/write 16 bits of memory.
.. data:: mem32
Read/write 32 bits of memory.
Use subscript notation ``[...]`` to index these objects with the address of
interest.
These memory objects can be used in combination with the peripheral register
constants to read and write registers of the MCU hardware peripherals, as well
as all other areas of address space.
Peripheral register constants
-----------------------------
The module defines constants for registers which are generated from CMSIS header
files, and the constants available depend on the microcontroller series that is
being compiled for. Examples of some constants include:
.. data:: GPIOA
Base address of the GPIOA peripheral.
.. data:: GPIOB
Base address of the GPIOB peripheral.
.. data:: GPIO_BSRR
Offset of the GPIO bit set/reset register.
.. data:: GPIO_IDR
Offset of the GPIO input data register.
.. data:: GPIO_ODR
Offset of the GPIO output data register.
Constants that are named after a peripheral, like ``GPIOA``, are the absolute
address of that peripheral. Constants that have a prefix which is the name of a
peripheral, like ``GPIO_BSRR``, are relative offsets of the register. Accessing
peripheral registers requires adding the absolute base address of the peripheral
and the relative register offset. For example ``GPIOA + GPIO_BSRR`` is the
full, absolute address of the ``GPIOA->BSRR`` register.
Example use:
.. code-block:: python3
# set PA2 high
stm.mem32[stm.GPIOA + stm.GPIO_BSRR] = 1 << 2
# read PA3
value = (stm.mem32[stm.GPIOA + stm.GPIO_IDR] >> 3) & 1
Functions specific to STM32WBxx MCUs
------------------------------------
These functions are available on STM32WBxx microcontrollers, and interact with
the second CPU, the RF core.
.. function:: rfcore_status()
Returns the status of the second CPU as an integer (the first word of device
info table).
.. function:: rfcore_fw_version(id)
Get the version of the firmware running on the second CPU. Pass in 0 for
*id* to get the FUS version, and 1 to get the WS version.
Returns a 5-tuple with the full version number.
.. function:: rfcore_sys_hci(ogf, ocf, data, timeout_ms=0)
Execute a HCI command on the SYS channel. The execution is synchronous.
Returns a bytes object with the result of the SYS command.

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Programmable IO
===============
The RP2040 has hardware support for standard communication protocols like I2C,
SPI and UART. For protocols where there is no hardware support, or where there
is a requirement of custom I/O behaviour, Programmable Input Output (PIO) comes
into play. Also, some MicroPython applications make use of a technique called
bit banging in which pins are rapidly turned on and off to transmit data. This
can make the entire process slow as the processor concentrates on bit banging
rather than executing other logic. However, PIO allows bit banging to happen
in the background while the CPU is executing the main work.
Along with the two central Cortex-M0+ processing cores, the RP2040 has two PIO
blocks each of which has four independent state machines. These state machines
can transfer data to/from other entities using First-In-First-Out (FIFO) buffers,
which allow the state machine and main processor to work independently yet also
synchronise their data. Each FIFO has four words (each of 32 bits) which can be
linked to the DMA to transfer larger amounts of data.
All PIO instructions follow a common pattern::
<instruction> .side(<side_set_value>) [<delay_value>]
The side-set ``.side(...)`` and delay ``[...]`` parts are both optional, and if
specified allow the instruction to perform more than one operation. This keeps
PIO programs small and efficient.
There are nine instructions which perform the following tasks:
- ``jmp()`` transfers control to a different part of the code
- ``wait()`` pauses until a particular action happens
- ``in_()`` shifts the bits from a source (scratch register or set of pins) to the
input shift register
- ``out()`` shifts the bits from the output shift register to a destination
- ``push()`` sends data to the RX FIFO
- ``pull()`` receives data from the TX FIFO
- ``mov()`` moves data from a source to a destination
- ``irq()`` sets or clears an IRQ flag
- ``set()`` writes a literal value to a destination
The instruction modifiers are:
- ``.side()`` sets the side-set pins at the start of the instruction
- ``[]`` delays for a certain number of cycles after execution of the instruction
There are also directives:
- ``wrap_target()`` specifies where the program execution will get continued from
- ``wrap()`` specifies the instruction where the control flow of the program will
get wrapped from
- ``label()`` sets a label for use with ``jmp()`` instructions
- ``word()`` emits a raw 16-bit value which acts as an instruction in the program
An example
----------
Take the ``pio_1hz.py`` example for a simple understanding of how to use the PIO
and state machines. Below is the code for reference.
.. code-block:: python3
# Example using PIO to blink an LED and raise an IRQ at 1Hz.
import time
from machine import Pin
import rp2
@rp2.asm_pio(set_init=rp2.PIO.OUT_LOW)
def blink_1hz():
# Cycles: 1 + 1 + 6 + 32 * (30 + 1) = 1000
irq(rel(0))
set(pins, 1)
set(x, 31) [5]
label("delay_high")
nop() [29]
jmp(x_dec, "delay_high")
# Cycles: 1 + 7 + 32 * (30 + 1) = 1000
set(pins, 0)
set(x, 31) [6]
label("delay_low")
nop() [29]
jmp(x_dec, "delay_low")
# Create the StateMachine with the blink_1hz program, outputting on Pin(25).
sm = rp2.StateMachine(0, blink_1hz, freq=2000, set_base=Pin(25))
# Set the IRQ handler to print the millisecond timestamp.
sm.irq(lambda p: print(time.ticks_ms()))
# Start the StateMachine.
sm.active(1)
This creates an instance of class :class:`rp2.StateMachine` which runs the
``blink_1hz`` program at 2000Hz, and connects to pin 25. The ``blink_1hz``
program uses the PIO to blink an LED connected to this pin at 1Hz, and also
raises an IRQ as the LED turns on. This IRQ then calls the ``lambda`` function
which prints out a millisecond timestamp.
The ``blink_1hz`` program is a PIO assembler routine. It connects to a single
pin which is configured as an output and starts out low. The instructions do
the following:
- ``irq(rel(0))`` raises the IRQ associated with the state machine.
- The LED is turned on via the ``set(pins, 1)`` instruction.
- The value 31 is put into register X, and then there is a delay for 5 more
cycles, specified by the ``[5]``.
- The ``nop() [29]`` instruction waits for 30 cycles.
- The ``jmp(x_dec, "delay_high")`` will keep looping to the ``delay_high`` label
as long as the register X is non-zero, and will also post-decrement X. Since
X starts with the value 31 this jump will happen 31 times, so the ``nop() [29]``
runs 32 times in total (note there is also one instruction cycle taken by the
``jmp`` for each of these 32 loops).
- ``set(pins, 0)`` will turn the LED off by setting pin 25 low.
- Another 32 loops of ``nop() [29]`` and ``jmp(...)`` will execute.
- Because ``wrap_target()`` and ``wrap()`` are not specified, their default will
be used and execution of the program will wrap around from the bottom to the
top. This wrapping does not cost any execution cycles.
The entire routine takes exactly 2000 cycles of the state machine. Setting the
frequency of the state machine to 2000Hz makes the LED blink at 1Hz.